H-DNA

A Closer Look at the Interesting Evolution of the DNA Sequencing

2010-06-26T23:46:00.000+08:00

DNA Sequence as an essential discipline of medicine and technology involves dynamic subsets and methods of multi-discipline areas like the incorporation of biochemical methodology in order to determine the exact arrangement of the many biochemical components such as thymine, adenine, and the nucleotide base in a single component known as the nucleic acid (DNA oligonucleotide).

The Growth of DNA Sequence Method in the Face of New Technology
Relatively, the DNA sequencing and the methods involved on it have originated from the very complex and taxing gel electrophoresis technique, which involves a tedious process of separating the DNA, the RNA, or the molecular proteins with the application of electrical current in a gel matrix. Tedious and taxing as it, many experts believe that the gel electrophoresis technique was not an efficient method that prompted many scientists to come up with a newer technique.

At present, the method that initiated a better DNA sequencing is based on an automated protocol employing dye labeling and recognition in the capillary-e (or electrophoresis). This method allows the quick sequencing of two types of genes (the genomes and the transcriptomes) all at the same time making it a lot efficient.
In the early days, the DNA Sequence method was relatively known as the RNA sequencing. This is technically a lot easier to perform compared to DNA sequencing. One of the earliest completed sequencing using this method was identified, performed, and published by the world renowned science scholar Walter Fiers and his associates at the University of Ghent. The scholar contribution of these people in the field of DNA and RNA sequencing was first released in the years 1972 and 1976.

Prior to the 1972-1976 published material of Fiers, three equally renowned scientists made an exploration on DNA sequence method. In 1970, Sanger of England and Gilbert and Maxam of Harvard explored the use of various DNA sequence methods that resulted to a unified method known as the Wandering-Spot Analysis. However, because of the complexity in the usage of this DNA sequence method, the Wandering-Spot analysis was rather short-lived.

Sanger, in his commitment to come up with a much better method created his own team and worked on developing a newer and simpler method. His work was published in 1975 and instantly became the better choice by many experts. The Chain-Termination method of Sanger and associates was relatively the method used by many DNA experts.

The Rebuttal of Gilbert and Maxam's DNA Sequencing Method
Maxam and Gilbert thought that the method used by Sanger (the Chain-Termination) was rather tedious and inaccurate because with the improved and modified Maxam and Gilbert DNA Sequence method, the modification of chemical components of the DNA and the succeeding cleavage at a particular DNA base, then there can be a better and much improved DNA sequencing result.

The Challenges that DNA Sequence Methods Face
One of the major challenges that DNA sequencing methods are facing is the presence of poor and low quality of the first 40 DNA bases and continuously becoming poorer and lower in quality as it reaches the next DNA 900 bases. The presence of advanced technology, it can trim down the poorness in the quality by employing some software packages and highly specialized computer systems.

George Edmondson is an experienced writer specializing on DNA Sequencing. To learn more about DNA Sequencing, you can visit http://www.dnasequenceinfo.com.

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DNA Structures

2010-06-24T11:44:00.000+08:00

In all that we see in nature, the principle that we usually see is that form follows function. This is because in almost all creatures and plants, the unique features that they have serve a purpose. One example of this includes how some creatures are able to camouflage themselves within their background because their skin color allows them to do so. Other examples include birds with specially shaped beaks to help them catch prey, and the woodpecker is a good example of this. However, this principle does not only apply to the physical attributes of animals and plants as this principle is also followed up to the molecular level. This is seen on how the structure of the most basic genetic molecule, which is DNA also follows this principle.

Form follows function

The function of DNA is for replication and the transfer of genetic information. Given this, it can be expected that the structure of DNA would be designed to serve these functions. For its replication function, the two-strand structure of DNA molecule allows for the separation of these two strands to be able to bind with newly developing DNA molecule. This means that the two strands can "give birth" to a limitless number of DNA molecules as long as the replication process goes on.

For its genetic information transfer function, the way by which DNA molecule is made up of sub-units that contain a sugar, a phosphate group and four nitrogenous bases allows for the molecule to be arranged in a way by which a code is formed. This code is determined by the sequence of the four nitrogenous bases namely, adenosine (A), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and guanine (G). During the replication process, this code is transferred to the new DNA molecules that are formed through a process by which a gene that is formed or coded in the same sequence in which the nitrogenous bases are sequenced in the DNA. These genes then determine the proteins that make up and establish the biological characteristics of an organism.

As with anything in nature, DNA also follows the principle that form follows function. This is because the unique structure of DNA allows it to serve its two main functions, which are the replication and the transfer of genetic information.

DNA [http://www.z-DNA.com] provides detailed information on DNA, DNA Testing, DNA Structures, DNA Fingerprinting and more. DNA is affiliated with Free DNA Testing [http://www.e-DNATesting.com].

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DNA Molecules

2010-06-20T23:43:00.000+08:00

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the component containing the blueprint that specifies the biological development and composition of every form of life. Its general structure is in the form of a double helix and is primarily made up of nucleic acids. DNA is a polymer strand of nucleotides that contain sequences using genetic codes. For most complex cells, DNA is actually located in the cell nucleus. The physical model of the DNA molecule has always been a source of great mystery to a lot of people. How can a tiny molecule be responsible for carrying all genetic information?

DNA molecules are referred to as molecules of heredity because they are responsible for the genetic passing on of inherited traits. DNA is replicated during the process of reproduction, transmitting parental DNA to offspring during reproduction itself.

Although scientists from ancient times already recognized the propagation of features to the next generation, the formal study of DNA, including the fundamental principles that govern heredity, only started when Gregor Mendel hypothesized that physical traits of garden peas are a result of the combination of genes from both parent garden peas. In the early 1950s scientists accepted scientific evidence that proved that DNA is the chromosomal component responsible in carrying hereditary information. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase's experiment proved that DNA is the molecule that holds genetic information.

The physical structure of the DNA molecule and its complex functioning was proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick who studied the structure of DNA molecules using x-ray crystallography. At that time, it was already made known that DNA is made up of nucleotides made up of a sugar, a phosphate, and a base; each DNA molecule has four different bases; DNA's basic structure is helical. Their collaboration further enhanced these ideas as they promoted novel yet scientifically-backed ideas that led to better understanding of the DNA structure and the ability to work with and manipulate the DNA molecule.

DNA [http://www.z-DNA.com] provides detailed information on DNA, DNA Testing, DNA Structures, DNA Fingerprinting and more. DNA is affiliated with Free DNA Testing [http://www.e-DNATesting.com].

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DNA Testing & It's Uses In Todays Society

2010-06-16T11:42:00.000+08:00

A DNA test is done to get vital facts or information about a crime, to prove the innocence and guilt of someone or trace family ancestry. DNA is used in paternity testing and genetic testing as well.
Lets cover how DNA is useful across different strata.

DNA and Forensic Science
In forensic science, DNA fingerprinting is used widely. It is used to find the match of the suspect of a crime using the sample of semen, saliva, blood, hair etc. There are different methods to do DNA fingerprinting. These methods are amplified fragment length polymorphism (AmpFLP), short tandem repeats (STR), polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and RFLP analysis. DNA fingerprinting also helps to understand the pattern of human beings from the pre historic times.

DNA and Paternity Test
The DNA paternity test is done to prove whether a child is the daughter or son of a person by making a comparison of the DNA of both the parents. There are different companies that provide services for paternity testing. Generally, there are three kinds of testing companies that offer the test. The first kind are those companies which specialize in testing and have their own testing lab to perform the test. In the second category, there are those companies that provide service of others like a broker. In the third category, there are laboratories which perform the paternity test as a side job.

DNA and Genetic Disorders
These days, genetic testing are done using DNA analysis to test for various illness, diseases, ancestry and many other things. Genetic test is the DNA analysis from the human body. In our DNA, there are various strands of code relating to hair color, height, eye color and of other related parts. It also consists of information related with illness and disease. Genetic tests can be performed before or after birth. In case of a genetic test before birth, the doctor takes some fluid from the mother's fetus or do a CVS to have material from placenta containing the genetic information. For genetic testing after birth, this is done using blood sample or by taking swab from the inside of the cheek. Some segments of the DNA do not change and it passes from generation to generation. This helps in paternity testing and also to determine earlier ancestry.

DNA testing centers
There are different DNA testing centers that provide testing information. They provide DNA analysis and other testing service like DNA banking and paternity testing. Testing centers also provide counselings for biological relationships research. Theses centers process the DNA samples in accredited laboratories and give highly accurate results. Childsafetyaid, GeneTree, Atlanta DNA center Inc. and American testing center of DNA are some of the popular DNA testing centers.

Thus, it can be rightly said that DNA testing and its benefits permeates every strata of life because of its accuracy and clarity.

Mr S C Elmore owns and operates [http://www.dna-testing-helper.com] Dna Testing [http://www.dna-testing-helper.com]

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DNA Analysis

2010-06-14T23:42:00.000+08:00

The DNA of a person is responsible for providing information regarding who and what the person is since it contains the design of the genetically passed traits taken from both parents. A lot of information may be attained when one carefully studies the DNA and relates it to possible other discoveries about the person, such as parentage, disease predisposition, etc. DNA is responsible for the person's hair color, eye color, build, susceptibility to certain disorders, and a lot more. Careful analysis must be done in order to use the DNA as a means to study and evaluate a person with regard to inherent traits passed on by his/her parents.

DNA analysis entails the careful scrutiny of the DNA. Understanding how the DNA works, its physical structure, the limits of its characteristics, and how these all help in providing much needed personal information are some of the ways in which DNA properties are optimized. Not everyone can successfully and properly analyze DNA. Aside from years of study devoted to the understanding of DNA, DNA analysts also go through years of experience and practice in laboratories and in the practice of DNA testing and analysis to enable them to analyze DNA and how it works. Training of DNA analysts also includes understanding sophisticated tools and machines designed for specific DNA analysis. Proper management and use of these devices would make them more efficient in the effort to analyze DNA correctly.

Most DNA consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes, the mitochondrial DNA inherited from the mother, and red blood cells. All these elements are carefully purified, studied, and then measured against existing DNA criteria, depending on which use the DNA analysis is deemed for. DNA analysis determines the sequence of the base pairs along the length of the DNA and will provide information as to which of the gene components contains just genes, which regulate genes, which among them have functions, or which have functions still to be discovered.

Several commonly used DNA analysis techniques include: digestion by restriction endonucleases, gel electrophoresis, blotting and hybridization, synthesis of nucleic acids through polymerase, synthesis of nucleic acid probes, nucleotide sequencing, molecular cloning, or the analysis of reporter genes.

DNA [http://www.z-DNA.com] provides detailed information on DNA, DNA Testing, DNA Structures, DNA Fingerprinting and more. DNA is affiliated with Free DNA Testing [http://www.e-DNATesting.com].

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DNA and the Evidence For PreBiotic Natural Intelligence

2010-06-01T23:38:00.000+08:00

Culture has been defined as the symbolic order; that is, the body of thoughts prescriptive of social relational order. "Thinking" has similarly been defined as the symbolic modeling of experience always with the potentials for suggesting an alternative order of experience. I define magic as embodying the purported techniques for fulfilling an alternative order of reality: the techniques for making our dreams come true; fulfilling our dreams in what we understand to the "real world."

Sociologists assure us that only man creates symbols and simulates concrete relational order by means of symbolic systems of order. Sociologists proudly proclaim man the only culture creating agent in nature; but I propose that we need a radical rethinking of our picture of the role of DNA in bio-evolutionary history if we will progress beyond the outmoded conceptualization which continues to hold sway amongst biologists in spite of advances in information technology since the neo-Darwinian synthesis was first formulated.

My proposal to biological scientists is that DNA might, on closer examination of its molecular order, turn out to be a molecular computer nanomachine running on an advanced statespace intelligence algorithm of some sort. The science of genetics need consider, seriously, the possibility that so-called junk DNA might incorporate some form of intelligence code. It is significant that nature had, in the symbolic system of the DNA molecule, within the boundaries of the sociological definition, been "thinking," creating and transmitting culture for eons before man appeared. Man may only represent a new, previously unexplored possibility for Natural Intelligence in the art of culture creation and transmission.

The self-imposed naivete of biological thought face-to-face with evidence of a pre-human system for symbolic modeling of physical relational order is remarkable. Could Natural Intelligence have revealed its hands more plainly to Watson and Crick, to Beadle and Tatum?

A yawning gap separates the mere existence of a macro-molecule and the exploitation of its chain structure in a system for symbolic modeling of concrete relational order. It is one thing to have the alphabets; it is a radically different thing to use the alphabets to invent a language by assigning references or "meaning" to otherwise meaningless symbols!

The genetic system accommodates the possibility, in what biologists carelessly believe are random mutations, for suggestion of alternative bio-physical orders. This is the essence of divergent thinking, creativity and innovation in intelligence systems.

How long will it take for molecular biologists to appreciate that the genetic system might incorporate some form of syntax-driven intelligence code?

Steven Pinker, in his How The Mind Works, attempted a working definition of intelligence. He was of the opinion that intelligence comes with a special "commodity:" information; and that what defines intelligent function ultimately is information processing capability.

Guided by the criterion of information processing functional capacity, Pinker confidently ascribes intelligence to appropriately programmed machines and the human brain which programs the machines, but fails, curiously, to extend the same standard of judgment to the genetic machinery of living things which has done basically all, and more than computer machines and human minds have so far done: find workable solutions to the array of ill-posed inverse problems that must have been encountered in evolutionary history.

A few insightful commentators, casting a suspicious eye on the performance of the genetic machinery of life, have commented that the molecular genetic system may be likened to a computer machine, but I have persistently argued that the molecular genetic system is not like a computer machine but, rather, DNA is a systems design and implementation nanorobot made up of molecular hardware parts, with some form of statespace intelligence algorithm written into the structure its macromolecule. To refer to DNA as an intelligent bio-systems design and implementation nanorobot is not to employ a metaphor but probably, as might be confirmed, to speak literally.

"Whodunit?" is another question entirely. But long standing philosophical prejudice, in an issue of this nature, should not continue to keep us from examining possibilities which may lead to a revolution in our insight into a very important and vexing problem of life and its origins.

What we know about DNA function is sufficient for the confident prediction that analysis of relevant sections of DNA organic base sequences might reveal language-like sequences which, when ultimately decoded, will prove to constitute some form of advanced intelligence code powering the robotic assembly line of the genetic system.

What is the world out there like?

This was the massively ill-posed inverse problem that a systems design and assembly robot would face in circumstances of the genetic system in bio-evolutionary history. Given a presumption of DNA as a programmed intelligence system which could not literally "see" the world out there, one might conjecture that it must have proceeded, at crucial stages in evolutionary history, by "smartguessing," from fragmentary evidence, what a valid bioengineering solution to the problem at hand might look like and then proceeding to mapping out by massive parallel computing procedure statespace variations to the initial configuration under self imposed constraints of logic which reflect the basic assumptions with regard to statespace boundaries of the system being simulated.

Evolutionary mutations might not have been exactly random but might have proceeded under statespace operational constraints; but any highly organized system must bear with some noise: the generally deleterious mutations geneticists deal with in irradiated drosophila but mistake for the driving force of evolutionary progress.

Defining a statespace is largely synonymous with developing a language for expressing solutions in problem solving situations. The initial configuration and "neighborhood" rules governing the evolution of cellular automata, for instance, are synonymous with the rules of logic in human languages: the difference between logic operations of language and operations of a cellular automaton being only superficial.

The states and transformations of an automaton can, therefore, function effectively as a symbolic logic model of a given physical relational order in the same way that language can, if and only if the rules of its operations reflect or anticipate the logic of the states and transformations of the physical relational order it encodes.
When, however, as it may happen, there is an asymmetry between the logic of a system and the logic of the language which seeks to describe it, language inevitable devolves into gibberish corresponding to teratological forms of the physical relational order it encodes.

The implication of the foregoing to a Theory of Evolution is profound: the logic of DNA states and mutational transformations must somehow anticipate the idiosyncratic logic of bio-systems states and transformations. It is, in this context, important to point out the fact that "Artificial Life" designers mislead laymen when they talk of "seed" populations in a genetic algorithm as randomly generated. The "randomness" at initialization is within the boundaries of a defined state or search space, and the "seeding," sometimes, is with a bias for the regions of statespace in which optimal solutions are expected to be found.

DNA might have behaved exactly like the "Artificial Life" designer in evolutionary history, by implementing stochastic search algorithms for optimal bio-engineering solutions within the boundaries of the statespace it defines with respect to the bioengineering problem under consideration: that is, DNA mutations might not be random in the way biologists naively conceive.

Getting properly acquainted with DNA as an intelligent robot would involve elucidating the statespace intelligence algorithms on which it runs. Nature abounds with glaring evidence of the extra-ordinary "smartguessing" skills of bio-information systems: the inverse optics wizardry of the human eye-brain couple, the navigational skills of birds and insects (DNA had no readymade "map of the world" to work with), and the quick and efficient mutational responses of microbes to antibiotic agents.

I have this strong gut feeling that we'd still be wallowing abjectly, beyond redemption, in the pristine organic soup had DNA no smart, street-wise alternatives to the naive "random mutations" of the "Neo-Darwinian synthesis."

The writer John Thomas Didymus is the author of "Confessions of God: The Gospel According to St. John Thomas Didymus." He maintains a blog at http://www.johnthomasdidymus.blogspot.com/ and website at http://www.resurrectionconspiracy.com/

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DNA Sequencing, What Use to the Public

2010-05-31T23:29:00.000+08:00

The multi budgeted project that underwent criticism from various fronts was, that of the human genome sequence. At times, there were instances when the project was about to be closed. Finally, the efforts proved successful and the project reached its completion at the term of the millennia. The next question ready in the minds of the critics was regarding the usefulness of this project to the general public. It has been used for criminal identification by employing a DNA test. Furthermore, it has crucial importance in forensics. Thanks to this technique, now the guilty could easily be proven by gathering evidence from the crime scene. A small fragment of skin or hair is sufficient to identify the culprit. Moreover, issues like paternity fraud could also be addressed by a simple paternity test.

In times of emergency conditions such as the terrorist's attacks or deaths resulting from burns, the victims are not left in a state to be easily identified or recognized. DNA identification done by the institutes along with the team of experts could assist the medical examiners in the identification of the victims. This would speed up the process. Furthermore, the frustrated family members of the victims would at least be able to find the remains of their loved ones to carry on their burial ceremoniously.

If we take examples from the history such as the Shoah project in which children from Argentina disappeared in 1970. The families were separated through the holocaust. The Deoxyribonucleic acid from the dead bodies buried throughout Europe was used to identify the missing children who were finally reunited to their grandparents.

Another area of considerable importance where this technique proved its worth is sports. In The two most famous international events of the world for example, in the NFL Super Bowl and in the Olympics, this sequencing was used. It was done on Super Bowls' souvenir footballs and Olympic souvenirs to prove verifiable authenticity.

This technique has been a tool of undeniable importance in studies of evolution. Moreover, it has also been used to trace human migration patterns to identify their family lineage. It can also be used as a means to track migratory or endangered animals and also for the demarcation of newly discovered biological creatures. It employs a way of prosecuting poachers of endangered and protected species that have their own personal DNA databank.

The most interesting use of this sequencing is for the testing of foreign species or material from outer space. These studies aim at determining their origin and to see if they ever existed on earth and if so then in what conditions. It was this tool that proved the existence of extra-terrestrial life on Mars. It only requires the testing of a small sample and it can be employed to identify the pre existing species on the earth that might have existed millions of years ago.

It is simply amazing how this technique could be employed to provide benefits to the society in different or completely contrasting fields.

Connor R. Sullivan recently researched a facility that performs a special type of DNA test for an article he is writing on the subject of the tests and their relevance in the court room. He was amazed with how quickly the results from a paternity test became available.

DNA Fingerprinting

2010-05-15T23:32:00.000+08:00

In criminal cases, it is the strength of the evidence against the accused that determines the outcome of the case. This is why prosecutors try their best to come up with the strongest evidence to prove the guilt of the defendant, and this is also why defense lawyers try their best to discredit the evidence of the prosecution. To help them do this, both the defense and the prosecution solicits the help of experts in analyzing evidence and in proving the veracity of the evidences in the case. In recent times, the expert that lawyers have greatly depended on with regard to the analysis of evidence is the Forensic Expert who is capable of doing DNA profiling or fingerprinting.

DNA profiling

Forensic experts who do DNA profiling are able to identify the 0.1% difference between human DNA to be able to pinpoint if the DNA material found in a crime scene matches those of the accused. This process has been proven to be very accurate and it has even been used to resolve past cases, and in some instances, it has been able to exonerate some prisoners who have been found to be innocent of the crime they have been imprisoned for in the past.

The process

The process of DNA profiling involves a process by which DNA samples from a crime scene are collected from various sources such as hair and skin cells. The DNA will then be extracted from the samples and it would be cut using different enzymes that recognize the patterns in DNA. The DNA will then be made to run through a gel where they are separated by an electric current through a process called electrophoresis. The fragments would then be compared to the other samples to determine if there is a match. This process is highly accurate in identifying whose DNA material is found in a crime scene, but it cannot tell if a person has planted the DNA material, which is why authorities do not completely rely on DNA profiling.

In recent years, DNA profiling has been successful at helping both defense lawyers and prosecutors establish or dispute the veracity of evidence. This is because it provides an accurate way of establishing whether a suspect has been at a crime scene or if the DNA of the accused is found on the victim, which can establish guilt, especially in rape cases. However, DNA profiling should not be the sole basis of establishing guilt, as there is also the possibility of DNA material being planted by the real perpetrator of a crime.

DNA [http://www.z-DNA.com] provides detailed information on DNA, DNA Testing, DNA Structures, DNA Fingerprinting and more. DNA is affiliated with Free DNA Testing [http://www.e-DNATesting.com].

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DNA As Intelligent Robot

2010-04-14T23:36:00.000+08:00

A conceptualization of naturally occurring DNA molecule itself as molecular nano-robot really really isn't exactly "revolutionary." Molecular biologists have actually begun designing nano-scale robotic "machines" exploiting the molecular structural apparatus of DNA. What is novel about my idea is the claim that naturally occurring DNA molecule itself is a molecular assembly line robot with an intelligence program coded into the details of its structure in relation to its interaction with other components in its cellular environment, all of which explain the systems design and implementation functional capability of the bio-genetic system as evidenced in evolutionary history. The accomplishments of molecular engineers, in recent times, only confirm the feasibility of the idea of an autonomous intelligent system assembled exclusively from molecular hardware parts.

On April 10, 2009, biochemists at New York University and Harvard University created what they described as an autonomous DNA "walker" robot that can mimic a cell's transport system. Earlier versions of the molecular nanorobot did not function autonomously but required intervention at each step. A particular challenge that designers of the robot faced was designing one that could co-ordinate the movements of its own walker-legs so that they move synchronously without falling off tracks.

A report on 13 May 2010 claimed that scientist from Columbia University, Arizona State University and Cal-tech had programmed a new molecular robot to turn and stop on its tracks while following a DNA track. The significance of the breakthroughs is that it might one day be possible to design DNA nanorobots that can configure themselves to accomplish a number of medical therapeutic tasks, for instance, deliver cancer-killing drugs to target cells

The techniques used in "programming" the nanorobot involved exploitation of the already nature-designed sequence-recognition properties of DNA base pairing in a DNA origami self-assembly structural device. The genetic system had been using similar methods in its self-templating functions before molecular engineers struck on the idea.

A central consideration in the proposal of DNA as a naturally occurring intelligent molecular machine comes from the problem of the irreducibility of the bio-molecular systems function of living things. Several bio-chemists have pointed out the problem of irreducible complexity which abound in the complex functions of bio-systems at the bio-molecular and cellular levels. Several example have been given: protein transport, bacterial flagellum, electron transport, telomeres, photosynthesis and transcription regulation.
Irreducible complexity refers to the property of a complex system such that it is not possible to account for the system in the bio-evolutionary terms of numerous, successive, slight modifications; a basic requirement of the Darwinian evolutionary theory. In simpler terms, irreducibility refers to the fact of a complex interaction of parts in a system such that the system collapses the moment a single component is removed or ceases to function as it should. Irreducible systems cannot be manufactured in numerous, successive steps or by slight modifications of a precursor model.

The special problem that irreducible complexity presents to evolution at the small scale of bio-function is that it is not the exception but rather the rule, The biochemist Michael Behe points out the significant fact that in the ten years before 1996, the Journal of Molecular Biology had published over a thousand papers, yet none had discussed models for intermediates in the the development of complex bio-molecular structures of life.
The notion of DNA as an intelligent molecular machine is not a dogma but a proposal that can be subjected to objective scientific research inquiry as our intelligence systems design technology gets more sophisticated. The Neo-Darwinian synthesis belongs to a past age; an age before information technology began arming us with new and advanced theoretical possibilities in conceptualizing the phenomenon of biological life. Now that we have information that an older generation of biologists were not familiar with, we can begin takings step to correcting their misconceptions about information systems like the bio-genetic system of life.

The writer JohnThomas Didymus is the author of "Confessions of God: The Gospel According to St. JohnThomas Didymus." He manages a blog at http://www.johnthomasdidymus.blogspot.com/ and a website at http://www.resurrectionconspiracy.com/

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DNA Profiling - A Forensic Tool

2010-04-02T01:41:00.003+08:00

This DNA profiling article is written by Sreekumar Chathuar

Every object, natural or man-made, has an individuality, which is not duplicated in any other object .It is unique. Neither the nature has duplicated itself, nor man can. This is the law of individuality, which is of fundamental importance in forensic science. Anything and everything involved in a crime has individuality. The culprit is unique, his modus operandi is unique, his weapon of offense is unique, scene of crime is unique, evidentiary clues, left over or picked up by the culprit, are unique. The main task of the investigator is to identify the uniqueness to link the crime with the criminal. It was a tedious task till the advent of the DNA Profiling technique.

The advancement in biotechnology has gifted the forensic scientist with the most powerful genetic marker, the DNA, for individualizing and discriminating the biological evidence in forensic investigations. The term DNA Fingerprint was a trade mark name given by Cell mark Diagnostics, a company in America which licensed the technique, developed in U.K.Later this term was evolved to be replaced by the term DNA Profiling.DNA profiling is an absolute method for identification as on today for individualization of biological sample to the probability value of 99.9998 percent. The theory of the technique lies of the fact that each individual inherits DNA from its parents in the proportion of 50:50 DNA in one person does not match with other person in the world.

DNA - Structure and Uniqueness
DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid which is found in the chromosomes of the cells of living beings is the blue print of an individual.DNA determines the characteristics of the person such as the color of the skin ,type of hair, nails and so on. Using this genetic fingerprinting identification of an individual is done like in the traditional method of identifying fingerprints of suspects. This method of identification provides hundred percent precision. Structurally, DNA is a double helix-two thread like long strand of genetic material spiraled around each other. DNA is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides composed of Base [Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C)], Sugar and a Phosphate.

The sequential arrangement of the individual nucleotides is responsible for giving uniqueness to any individual living form, be it humans, animals, plants, or microbes. The DNA fingerprinting technique was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys of the Leicester University Sir Alec first made his world-changing discovery by separating strands of DNA into different sizes and showing them as bands on a photograph. What first seemed to him to be ‘a complicated mess’ has now become invaluable for police investigation, ranging from settling immigration and paternity disputes to solving rape and murder cases. He observed that while large sections of DNA show similar base sequence for every human being as they are made of same body components, a few sections of human DNA are found varying from individual to individual. This observable variation in human DNA is called polymorphism. These polymorphic segments in the DNA molecule serve as a means to identify individuals. To determine the individuality the DNA has to be first extracted from the specimen. The DNA is found in every living cell of our body, such as blood, semen, hair roots, bone, saliva, urine, a postmortem specimen etc.

DNA Profiling Procedure
The DNA is first extracted from a specimen by an elaborate chemical process. It is then mixed with a special enzyme called restriction endonucleasis which function as biological scissors which cut the DNA at specific sites .The restricted fragments are then separated according to size using gel electrophoresis technique. The fragments are put on a gel and electric current is applied. The shorter fragments move across on the gel faster towards the positive pole than the longer fragments. This separates the DNA fragments on the basis of their length. The next process is southern blotting. This process fixes the DNA fragments to the membrane firmly and in the same position. This is followed by hybridization process.Hybridisation involves bringing in contact a radioactive labeled probe , which is a particular type of DNA molecule that binds specifically with its complimentary base sequence present I the membrane. The probe bound fragments being Radioactive can then be recorded on an X-ray plate .This process is known as autoradiography. The X-ray plate will show dark bands appearing very much like bar code. The comparison of the bands in the DNA profiles of different specimen from the same individual will show similarity whereas DNA specimen of two different individuals will show different DNA profiles. This is the DNA profiling technique. Most recently another technique known as polymerase chain reaction has been developed for DNA profiling. This method is recommended when there is insufficient DNA for analysis or is in degraded form. The PCR technique takes into account polymorphic DNA segments and through a polymorphic chain reaction produces multiple copies of a particular polymorphic DNA segment which would be sufficient to meet the requirements of DNA profiling test.

Application of DNA Profiling In Forensic Identification
If the DNA fingerprint of a person matches with that of a sample, it means that the sample has come from that person only. The probability of two persons except identical twins having the same DNA finger print is around 1 in 30 billion world population it means that DNA test gives the perfect identity .It is a very advanced science.

The main advantage of this method is its ability to analyze very minute and environmentally challenged samples and to accurately establish their origins with a high degree of certainty .DNA is much resistant to degradation caused by environmental conditions like temperature humidity time which lead to the growth of micro organisms .It generates the same genetic pattern irrespective of the biological material like hair ,seminal stains, fresh blood, soft tissue, hard tissue etc.In fact this unique feature makes it a powerful tool in forensic identification. DNA can be successfully obtained fro blood and blood stains, vaginal and anal swabs, oral swabs, clothing, bone teeth, most organs and to some extent urine. Material objects obtained from the scene of crime like liquor bottles, glasses, cigarettes, stamps and envelope flaps have all been found to provide varying amounts of DNA .This helps in linking the suspect with the crime scene.

Difficult problems connected with sexual offenses can be solved by DNA profiling test. The vaginal swabs ,seminal stains and blood stains can be subjected to DNA technique for identifying the rapist or excluding the suspect with near certainty. In homicidal crimes, assault, hit and run accidents any type of body sample may be found at the crime scene such as hair, teeth, saliva etc, though DNA may be insufficient in hair or saliva specimen by the application of the PCR technology, the offender can be identified.

DNA profiling is used in identifying dead bodies in mass disasters, accidents etc.Likewise postmortem tissues or organs of the deceased can be identified by DNA test to establish the likely parentage of the deceased. DNA profiling is used in resolving paternity dispute which involve issues like maintenance suits, inheritance disputes or immigration problems. This technique has been used in Britain to screen immigrants claiming citizenship on the basis of their relations holding British citizenship. Cases which were closed due to lack of evidence can be re opened in the light of the DNA profiling technique.

BIBLOGRAPHY
Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence-22nd Edition, page 540 to 542.
Taylor’s Principle and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence.
Pantangi Balarama Venkata Ganesh v. State of A.P. 2003 CRI.L.J.4508.
science.howstuffworks.com/dna1.htm

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